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Frank AU (2018), "Distinctions - A Common Base for a Taxonomic Calculus for Objects and Actions", In Mountains, Men and Money---Ontology for Geographic and Spatio-Temporal Information Systems. , pp. 121-149. Gerastree Edition.
BibTeX:
@inbook{Frank2018taxcalculus,

  author = {Frank, A. U.},
  title = {Distinctions - A Common Base for a Taxonomic Calculus for Objects and Actions},
  booktitle = {Mountains, Men and Money---Ontology for Geographic and Spatio-Temporal Information Systems},
  publisher = {Gerastree Edition},
  year = {2018},
  pages = {121--149},
  file = {docs/docs4/4210Distinctions v14.pdf}
}
Frank AU and Dittrich A (2015), "Flexible annotation of digital literary text corpus with RDF", In Proceedings of the Workshop on Corpus-Based Research in the Humanities (CRH). , pp. 49-58. Polish Academy of Sciences.
Abstract: A corpus of text to be used for literary analysis, but generaly for other corpora in many other document oriented fields of digital humanities, must provide methodsbr>- to add and remove texts from the corpus,br>- to inquire about the texts in the corpus andbr>- to query the content of the corpus.br>RDF to structure document storage and SPARQL as a flexible query language are suitable to build, maintain and use corpora.br>We report on a system to prepare text for inclusion in a corpus for literary analysis, where text structure is annotated partially automatic and the result of linguistic analysis included in the same corpus. Analysis of the text can use SPARQL to extract text parts or produce statistics.Three experiments have shown us that requirements for (i) literary analysis of a single authors work, (ii) the analysis of specific aspects of a limited set of texts - the ontology of fairy tales - or (iii) a wide ranged, mostly statistical, analysis of a large number of texts pose the same fundamental requirements.
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{frank15:49[TUW-246553],

  author = {Frank, Andrew U. and Dittrich, Andreas},
  editor = {Mambrini, Francesco and Passarotti, Marco and Sporleder, Caroline},
  title = {Flexible annotation of digital literary text corpus with RDF},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of the Workshop on Corpus-Based Research in the Humanities (CRH)},
  publisher = {Polish Academy of Sciences},
  year = {2015},
  pages = {49--58},
  note = {Vortrag: Workshop on Corpus-Based Research in the Humanities (CRH), Warschau; 2015-12-10},
  file = {docs/after2010/RDF_annotation_CRH_print_KORRIGIERT.pdf}
}
Weiser P and Frank AU (2012), "Modeling Discrete Processes Over Multiple Levels of Detail Using Partial Function Application", In GI Zeitgeist 2012. Münster , pp. 93-98. IFGIPrints.
Abstract: Despite considerable research efforts, process ontologies are still less advanced than their static counterparts. Often, models consider only one fixed level of detail. This work presents a formalism how to represent multiple levels of detail in discrete processes.
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{weiser12:93[TUW-209764],

  author = {Weiser, Paul and Frank, Andrew U.},
  title = {Modeling Discrete Processes Over Multiple Levels of Detail Using Partial Function Application},
  booktitle = {GI Zeitgeist 2012},
  publisher = {IFGIPrints},
  year = {2012},
  pages = {93--98},
  url = {http://publik.tuwien.ac.at/files/PubDat_209764.pdf},
  file = {docs/after2010/PubDat_209764.pdf}
}
Frank AU (2010), "What Is the Use of Ontologies Concerning Organizing Data in Multidisciplinary Projects?", In Mining in European History Conference. , pp. 9. Universität Innsbruck.
Abstract: A central task of a multidisciplinary projects is to explain and declare the concepts and
connections of concepts of all the different disciplines and participants involved. Ontologies
and their tools can clarify and interpret the differences between words in context of
multidisciplinary users even though in a customary familiar context such words appear to
have the same meaning.
Ontologies are formal descriptions of concepts that are useful to achieve sharing of
computerized files. Ontologies describe things and operations that can be applied to them.
They improve communication between people, especially if they communicate indirectly
by sharing computerized databases, through organized concepts used to encode the
perception of reality in computer representations. The configuration of the central
database in which results of disciplines are allocated in a reusable way follows from
the formal ontology.
The presented tiered ontology distinguishes between simple observations, physical
objects that the observer conceptualizes, and the socially constructed objects of social reality.
Operations connect between different concepts in a traceable way.
A tiered ontology contributes to the separation of observation of physical facts from their
interpretation; they are thus important in multi-disciplinary and multi-language research
teams. A formal ontology translates to a tool to help the archaeologist to record his
observations in a form later reusable and integrable with the results from others!
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{Frank2010a,

  author = {Andrew U. Frank},
  title = {What Is the Use of Ontologies Concerning Organizing Data in Multidisciplinary Projects?},
  booktitle = {Mining in European History Conference},
  publisher = {Universität Innsbruck},
  year = {2010},
  pages = {9},
  file = {docs/docs4/4861_Himat_2010.pdf}
}
Frank AU (2008), "Data Quality - What Can an Ontological Analysis Contribute?", In Spatial Uncertainty. Vol. 1 Vol. Vol.1, pp. 393-397. WorldAcademicPress.
Abstract: Progress in research on data quality is slow and relevance of results for practice is low. Can an ontological analysis make significant contributions? The ''road block'' in data quality research seems to be an ontological one. Approaching ''data quality'' with an ordinary language philosophy method reveals the inherent contradiction in the concept. The ontological analysis reveals the necessity to separate the ontology (reality) proper from the epistemology (data). par Data quality reveals itself when data is used, which focuses our attention on the double linkage between reality and data: (1) the observation that reflects reality into the data and (2) the decision that links the plan to the changes in reality.par The analysis of the processes leading from raw observations to decisions leads to operational definitions for ''fitness for use'' and an effective method to assess the fitness of data for a decision. Novel is the consideration of data quality as transformation through the whole process from data collection to decision.
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{Frank2008b,

  author = {Frank, A. U.},
  editor = {Zhang, Jingxiong and Goodchild, Michael F.},
  title = {Data Quality - What Can an Ontological Analysis Contribute?},
  booktitle = {Spatial Uncertainty},
  publisher = {WorldAcademicPress},
  year = {2008},
  volume = {Vol.1},
  pages = {393--397},
  note = {Vortrag: 8th International Symposium on Spatial Accuracy Assessment in Natural Resources and Environment Sciences, Shanghai, China; 2008-06-25 -- 2008-06-27},
  url = {http://publik.tuwien.ac.at/files/PubDat_168138.pdf},
  file = {docs/docs4/4466_AF_Acurracy_DtaQuality_08_PubDat_168138.pdf}
}
Frank AU (2008), "Formal Ontologies for GIS: Current State and Challenges", 7, 2008.
BibTeX:
@unpublished{frank4497,

  author = {Andrew U. Frank},
  title = {Formal Ontologies for GIS: Current State and Challenges},
  year = {2008},
  file = {docs/docs4/4497_Keynote_af_GIForum_08_abstract.pdf}
}
Frank AU (2008), "Information Processes Produce the Imperfection in the Data - The Information Infrastructure Compensate for Them", In Headway in Spatial Data Handling. LNG&C , pp. 467-486. Springer, LNG&C.
Abstract: Data quality descriptions consider the imperfections found in geographic data. These imperfections are caused by imperfect realizations of the processes that are used to collect, translate, and classify the data. The tiered ontology gives a sensible framework to analyze the data processes and the imperfections they introduce. Decision methods using the data are adapted to some of the imperfections and compensate for them. Additional methods to reduce negative effects of imperfections in the data on decisions are used when necessary.
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{Frank2008d,

  author = {Frank, A. U.},
  editor = {Ruas, A. and Gold, C.},
  title = {Information Processes Produce the Imperfection in the Data - The Information Infrastructure Compensate for Them},
  booktitle = {Headway in Spatial Data Handling},
  publisher = {Springer, LNG&C},
  year = {2008},
  pages = {467--486},
  note = {Vortrag: Spatial Data Handling 2008, Montpellier France; 2008-06-23 -- 2008-06-25},
  url = {http://publik.tuwien.ac.at/files/pub-geo_2250.doc},
  file = {docs/docs4/4451_Information_Processes_V3.pdf}
}
Frank AU (2008), "Semantically Valid Alignment in the ``Semantic Web'': The Problem of Grounding", In Pre-AGILE Workshop. , pp. 9.
Abstract: Integration of semantics is a precondition for the integration of data; efforts to integrate or align the semantics expressed in various ontology languages are reported in the literature. The approaches are characterized by the assumptions they make about the known commonalities between the two (or more) sets of classes, described by the ontologies to align, but no-one can proceed without some known common elements in the ontologies. Explicitly introducing the distinctions that differentiate between the classes reduces the number of common concepts that must be established before alignment. A few classes describing water bodies in three languages are used as an example.
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{Frank2008f,

  author = {Frank, A. U.},
  editor = {Aufaure, M. and Klien, E.},
  title = {Semantically Valid Alignment in the ``Semantic Web'': The Problem of Grounding},
  booktitle = {Pre-AGILE Workshop},
  year = {2008},
  pages = {9},
  note = {Vortrag: AGILE Worshop 2008, Girona, Spain; 2008-05-05 -- 2008-05-08},
  url = {http://publik.tuwien.ac.at/files/pub-geo_2333.pdf},
  file = {docs/docs4/4404_af_Sematic_Web_AGILE_08_pub-geo_2333[1].pdf}
}
Frank AU (2007), "Data Quality Ontology: An Ontology for Imperfect Knowledge", In Spatial Information Theory 8th International Conference, COSIT 2007. LNCS 4736 , pp. 406-420. Springer.
Abstract: Data quality and ontology are two of the dominating research topics in GIS, influencing many others. Research so far investigated them in isolation. Ontology is concerned with perfect knowledge of the world and ignores so far imperfections in our knowledge. An ontology for imperfect knowledge leads to a consistent classification of imperfections of data (i.e., data quality), and a formalizable description of the influence of data quality on decisions. If we want to deal with data quality with ontological methods, then reality and the information model stored in the GIS must be represented in the same model. This allows to use closed loops sematics to define ''fitness for use'' as leading to correct, executable decisions. The approach covers knowledge of physical reality as well as personal (subjective) and social constructions. It lists systematically influences leading to imperfections in data in logical succession.
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{frank07:406[TUW-120889],

  author = {Frank, Andrew U.},
  editor = {Winter, Stephan and Duckham, Matt and Kulik, Lars and Kuipers, Ben},
  title = {Data Quality Ontology: An Ontology for Imperfect Knowledge},
  booktitle = {Spatial Information Theory 8th International Conference, COSIT 2007},
  publisher = {Springer},
  year = {2007},
  pages = {406--420},
  note = {Vortrag: COSIT 2007, Melbourne, Australia; 2007-09-19 -- 2007-09-23},
  url = {http://publik.tuwien.ac.at/files/pub-geo_1945.pdf},
  file = {docs/after2010/pub-geo_1945.pdf}
}
Frank AU (2007), "Data Quality Ontology: An Ontology for Imperfect Knowledge", In COSIT 2007. Vol. LNCS 4736, pp. 406-420. Springer.
Abstract: Data quality and ontology are two of the dominating research
topics in GIS, influencing many others. Research so far investigated them in
isolation. Ontology is concerned with perfect knowledge of the world and
ignores so far imperfections in our knowledge. An ontology for imperfect
knowledge leads to a consistent classification of imperfections of data (i.e.,
data quality), and a formalizable description of the influence of data quality
on decisions. If we want to deal with data quality with ontological methods,
then reality and the information model stored in the GIS must be represented
in the same model. This allows to use closed loops sematics to define
“fitness for use” as leading to correct, executable decisions. The approach
covers knowledge of physical reality as well as personal (subjective) and
social constructions. It lists systematically influences leading to
imperfections in data in logical succession.
BibTeX:
@incollection{Frank2007g,

  author = {Frank, Andrew U.},
  editor = {Winter, S. and Duckham, M. and Kulik, L. and Kuipers, B.},
  title = {Data Quality Ontology: An Ontology for Imperfect Knowledge},
  booktitle = {COSIT 2007},
  publisher = {Springer},
  year = {2007},
  volume = {LNCS 4736},
  pages = {406--420},
  file = {docs/docsS/svV34290dataqualityontology.pdf},
  file2 = { docs/docs4/4290dataqualityontologycosit07v3sv.pdf }
}
Frank A (2007), "Incompleteness, Error, Approximation, and Uncertainty: An Ontological Approach to Data Quality", In Geographic Uncertainty in Environmental Security (NATO Science for Peace and Security Series / NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security). , pp. 107-132. Springer.
Abstract: Ontology for geographic information is assumed to contribute to the design of GIS and to improve usability. Most contributions consider an ideal world where information is complete and without error. This article investigates the effects of incompleteness, error, approximation, and uncertainty in geographic information on the design of a GIS restricted to description of physical reality. The discussion is organized around ontological commitments, first listing the standard assumptions for a realist approach to the design of an information system and then investigating the effects of the limitations in observation methods and the necessary incompleteness of information. The major contribution of the article is to replace the not testable definition of data quality as `corresponding to reality' by an operational definition of data quality with respect to a decision. I argue that error, uncertainty, and incompleteness are necessary and important aspects of how humans organized and use their knowledge; it is recommended to take them into account when designing and using GIS.
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{Frank2007c,

  author = {Frank, A.},
  editor = {Morris, A. and Kokhan, S.},
  title = {Incompleteness, Error, Approximation, and Uncertainty: An Ontological Approach to Data Quality},
  booktitle = {Geographic Uncertainty in Environmental Security (NATO Science for Peace and Security Series / NATO Science for Peace and Security Series C: Environmental Security)},
  publisher = {Springer},
  year = {2007},
  pages = {107--132},
  note = {Included in the present edition as chapter 7},
  url = {http://publik.tuwien.ac.at/files/pub-geo_1948.pdf},
  file = {docs/docs4/4226FrankErrorApproximationV12.pdf}
}
Frank AU (2007), "Ontologies for Imperfect Data in GIS", Geoinformation, TU WIen.
Abstract: The importance for ontological clarification to design GIS, to structure data in a GIS or to
construct usable user interface is well established; ontologies are crucial to extend
interoperability from a syntactic to a semantic dimension. The discussion of ontology for GIS
always pretends that the data represent reality perfectly, but real data in a GIS can give only
an imperfect image of reality. An ontology for imperfect data is necessary, which is an
ontology of imperfections in the representation. The analysis starts with a brief review of the
ontology typically assumed for a GIS, followed by the description of the ontology of the
unavoidable imperfections in the data collected. This covers aspects like partial knowledge,
measurement errors, object formation, etc. (restricted to information about physical objects,
e.g., data in a GIS with environmental purposes). An ontology of imperfections sheds new
light on the quality of information discussion and leads to an operational definition for data
quality not based on perfection. Sufficient quality of data is achieved if further improvements
would not improve a decision noticeable. This leads to a differentiation of how insufficient
data quality can influence a decision.
BibTeX:
@unpublished{frank2007ontologies,

  author = {Frank, Andrew U},
  title = {Ontologies for Imperfect Data in GIS},
  year = {2007},
  file = {docs/docs4/4308_Imperfect_ontologies_V28.pdf}
}
Frank AU (2007), "Towards a Mathematical Theory for Snapshot", In LNG&C The European Information Society: Leading the Way with Geo-Information.. , pp. 317-334. Springer.
Abstract: In order to achieve interoperability of GIS, the meaning of thepar data must be expressed in a compatible description. Formal methods to describe the ontology of data are increasingly used, but the detail of their definitions are debated.par In this paper I investigate the mathematical structure of formal ontologies as they are the background for ontology languages like OWL, which are increasingly used in GIS. I separate formal aspects of the ontology languages from possible interpretations of the formulae in light of philosophical position. The paper gives formal description of a static and a temporal formalontology. This clarifies what are assumptions (i.e., ontological commitments)and what are consequences of these. A formalized treatment leads to a consistent formal ontology and is the precondition for the integration of ontological descriptions of geographic data. The analysis shows that most of the important restrictions in ontologies can be expressed only in a temporal ontology and they are often related to the question, which processes are included in the temporal ontology.
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{Frank2007j,

  author = {Frank, A. U.},
  editor = {Fabrikant, S. and Wachowicz, M.},
  title = {Towards a Mathematical Theory for Snapshot},
  booktitle = {LNG&C The European Information Society: Leading the Way with Geo-Information.},
  publisher = {Springer},
  year = {2007},
  pages = {317--334},
  note = {Included in the present edition as chapter 6},
  file = {docs/docs4/4248MathFormalOntoFrank06v7.pdf}
}
Frank AU (2006), "Distinctions Produce a Taxonomic Lattice: Are These the Units of Mentalese?", In Formal Ontology in Information Systems. Amsterdam Vol. 150, pp. 27-38. IOS Press.
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{Frank2006a,

  author = {Frank, A. U.},
  editor = {Bennett, B. and Fellbaum, Christiane and Breuker, Joost and Dieng-Kuntz, R. and Guarino, N. and Kok, J. N. and Liu, J. and López de Mántaras, R.},
  title = {Distinctions Produce a Taxonomic Lattice: Are These the Units of Mentalese?},
  booktitle = {Formal Ontology in Information Systems},
  publisher = {IOS Press},
  year = {2006},
  volume = {150},
  pages = {27--38},
  note = {Vortrag: 4th International Conference FOIS 2006, Baltimore, USA; 2006-11-09 -- 2006-11-11},
  file = {docs/docs4/4201Units_of_Mentalese_v18.pdf}
}
Frank AU (2005), "An Empirical Ontology for GIS"
Abstract: From the preface:
Our world has changed a lot since the classical Greeks started to
answer questions of ontology in a systematic way; we have
moved from a world where the struggle for physical survival was
the foremost concern to a world in which wars are fought on
information. Only 20 years ago, ontology was a sub-discipline of
philosophy, known to few. Now the term ontology figures in
official documents of the European Union and industry—
specifically software producers and the information industry—
starts research projects on ontology. International standardization
organizations are busy with defining “Ontology Languages”.
In the information age, the meaning of the information has
changed from a “philosophical” debate to a economically
important issue. The problem of translation between different
languages or professional vocabularies has become important.
Different collections of data must be merged to yield valuable
information, but this is only possible if the meaning of the data
and its encoding is compatible; we observe the differences in
vocabulary when we navigate web pages produced by other
organisations or ask queries on online databases. In each case,
differences in the ontology used and the semantics given to
words surface painfully.

It is said that the web contains all the information one ever
wants – one needs only find it. To construct automatic search
engines, which find the data we need to construct a map, to
answer a query etc. formalized methods to translate, understand,
and compare the data descriptions, the so-called metadata. The
methods to build formal ontologies described here contribute to
achieve this goal.

The philosophical debate was mired in the different
terminologies of philosophy schools that differed minimally but
blow-up the differences to fuel a heated debate. Now the
discussion is often buried in the jargon of computer science.
Both the specialized terminology and the jargon confuse and
obscure the issues. I try here to discuss my understanding of
ontology and how it is relevant to GIS and important for all of us
in simple terms.

BibTeX:
@unpublished{GISontology,

  author = {Andrew U. Frank},
  title = {An Empirical Ontology for GIS},
  year = {2005},
  note = {ask for key by email},
  file = {docs/docsH/Ontology_book_all_pieces_v5_a.pdf}
}
Gartner G, Frank AU and Retscher G (2004), "Pedestrian Navigation System for mixed indoor/outdoor environments", In Location Based Services & TeleCartography. 66 , pp. 161-167. Geowissenschaftliche Mitteilungen.
Abstract: Pedestrians have often ways in unfamiliar urban environment or in complex buildings. In these cases they need guidance to reach their targets, for example a specific room in a local authorities' building, a counter, or an institute at a university. The goal of location-based mobile services is to provide such guidance on demand (anywhere, anytime), individually tailored to the actual information needs and presented in preferred forms. This project is focusing on the information aspect of location-based services, i.e. on the user's task at hand and the support of the user's decisions by information provided by such a service. Specifying a task ontology will yield context-dependent conceptualizations, activities, and references to directions from the user's perspective. These specifications will allow to:br>- select appropriate sensor data and to integrate data when and where needed,br>- propose context-dependent routes, fitting to partly conflicting interests and goals,br>- select appropriate communication method in terms of supporting the user guiding by various multimedia cartography forms.br>To test and to demonstrate the approach and results this project takes a use case scenario - guiding visitors to institutes of the Technical University Vienna - and develops a prototype.
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{gartner04:161[TUW-119818],

  author = {Gartner, Georg and Frank, Andrew U. and Retscher, Günther},
  editor = {Gartner, Georg},
  title = {Pedestrian Navigation System for mixed indoor/outdoor environments},
  booktitle = {Location Based Services & TeleCartography},
  publisher = {Geowissenschaftliche Mitteilungen},
  year = {2004},
  pages = {161--167},
  note = {Vortrag: 2nd Symposium on Location Based Services and TeleCartography, Wien; 2004-01-28 -- 2004-01-29},
  file = {docs/after2010/CORP2004_GARTNER_FRANK_RETSCHER.pdf}
}
Frank AU (2003), "Ontology for Spatio-Temporal Databases", In Spatiotemporal Databases: The Chorochronos Approach. Berlin , pp. 9-78. Springer-Verlag.
BibTeX:
@incollection{Frank2003e,

  author = {Frank, A. U.},
  editor = {Koubarakis, Manolis and Sellis, Timos and et, al. and Goos, G. and Hartmanis, J. and Leeuwen, J. van},
  title = {Ontology for Spatio-Temporal Databases},
  booktitle = {Spatiotemporal Databases: The Chorochronos Approach},
  publisher = {Springer-Verlag},
  year = {2003},
  pages = {9--78},
  note = {Included in the present edition as chapter 3},
  url = {http://sk.sagepub.com/reference/geoinfoscience/n151.xml},
  doi = {10.4135/9781412953962.n151},
  file = {docs/docsA/chorochronos_chapter2.pdf}
}
Frank AU (2001), "The Rationality of Epistemology and the Rationality of Ontology", In Rationality and Irrrationality, Proceedings of the 23rd International Ludwig Wittgenstein Symposium, Kirchberg am Wechsel, August 2000. Vol. 29, pp. 110-119. Hölder-Pichler-Tempsky.
Abstract: Philosophers have proposed many different ontologies. Despite hundreds of years of effort, it has been
impossible to reconcile the differences between them and to establish a single, widely accepted
ontology. For practical purposes a consistent and comprehensive ontology is necessary: information
systems which manage adequate descriptions of the world must be constructed on the basis of some
ontology, even if this ontology is never explicitly described. This was not clear in the early years of
information systems and many practical problems were discovered which could later be traced back to
inappropriate ontological assumptions. The connection between information systems and ontology was
at the foundation of the CYC project (Lenat, Guha et al. 1990) and has since gained substantial
acceptance among theoretical and practical thinkers in information systems (Guarino 1998; Sowa
1998). The construction of re-usable ontologies (Frank 1997) has become an interesting, rapidly
growing business and ‘ontologist’ is an acceptable job description in forward-looking IT companies.
The design of Geographic Information Systems, which cover information about objects and
properties in the world with respect to their location (Longley, Goodchild et al. 1999) involves
ontologies too. Indeed, such systems are ontologically more demanding than ordinary administrative
information systems. They span a much larger diversity of kinds of things: from the description of the
elevation of the surface of the earth with a regular grid of points to the description of the natural land
cover (woods, fields, etc.) and morphology (mountains, valleys, etc.). They also include man-made
features like roads and buildings as well as artificial boundaries between a range of different sorts of
political and administrative units (Smith 1995), etc. There is no ready -made single ontology to cover all
of these most diverse aspects of reality. Therefore we propose here the construction of an ontology
consisting of several coordinated tiers.
An ontology constructed from tiers can integrate different ontological approaches in a unified
system. In particular, it can merge a plenum, continuous space ontology with Aristotle’s ‘natural kind’
ontology of objects. We can also integrate the ontology of ‘social reality’ described by Searle (1995). It
seems possible also to overcome some of the differences between competing proposals, differences
which we can understand as motivated by the examples the authors have in mind. From our practical
experience, we have learned that a single ontology, which applies to all situations and the most diverse
kinds of phenomena in the world or in our imagination, is not achievable. Therefore we propose here
an orderly integration of otherwise contradictory proposals.
I am not interested here in terminological discussions, and I use terms like ‘ontology’ in a generic
way; Guarino (1997) has shown the many different uses of the term by different authors and I do not
want to add to this list. My approach is empirical and stresses our daily experience in interacting with
the world as a source of knowledge to build ontologies. The goal is a computational model of an
ontology, which can be used for the construction of information systems.
The remainder of t his paper first gives an overview of the tiers and then discusses each of them in
turn. It sketches how a computational model of ontology could be built and draws some conclusions
about its usefulness.
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{Frank2001e,

  author = {Frank, A. U.},
  editor = {Smith, Barry and Brogaard, Berit},
  title = {The Rationality of Epistemology and the Rationality of Ontology},
  booktitle = {Rationality and Irrrationality, Proceedings of the 23rd International Ludwig Wittgenstein Symposium, Kirchberg am Wechsel, August 2000},
  publisher = {Hölder-Pichler-Tempsky},
  year = {2001},
  volume = {29},
  pages = {110--119},
  note = {Included in the present edition as chapter 2},
  file = {docs/docsS/wittgenstein2000af.pdf}
}
Frank AU (2001), "Tiers of ontology and consistency constraints in geographical information systems", International Journal of Geographical Information Science. Vol. 15(7), pp. 667-678. Taylor & Francis.
Abstract: Consistency constraints placed on a database to assure, that values
incorporated in the database are consisten, are a well known foundation of
Geographical Information Systems. Unfortunately in real situations rules for
consistency constraints are not so clear, and inconsistent ontologies are common
place, not least in geographical information, covering as it does a much wider realm
than many other information systems I have suggested elsewhere 5-tiers of ontology
for GIS. Such an ontology can integrate different ontological approaches in a unified
system. In this paper the relation of the 5-tier ontology and consistency constraints is
explored, and it is shown that different constraints are appropriate to different tiers.
BibTeX:
@article{frank2001tiers,

  author = {Frank, Andrew U},
  title = {Tiers of ontology and consistency constraints in geographical information systems},
  journal = {International Journal of Geographical Information Science},
  publisher = {Taylor & Francis},
  year = {2001},
  volume = {15},
  number = {7},
  pages = {667--678},
  file = {docs/docs_afxxx/afijgistiers01.pdf}
}
Frank A and Medak D (1997), "Executable axiomatic specification using Functional language", In Proceedings of 9th EJCIMKB'97 - European Japanese Conf on Information Modeling and Knowledge Bases. IOS Press, Amsterdam (NL).
Abstract: Formal specifications are difficult to read. Executable specifications allow to see the
behavior of the specified objects and help the domain specialist to detect errors
quickly. We present here a method which allows to write axiomatic specifications
which can be executed and discuss the limitations in expressive power imposed by the
restriction to constructive axioms and how it can be circumvented.
The method results from practical efforts to formalize the meaning of object types
for Geographic Information Systems. If such data are shared between organisations,
differences in the semantics become apparent and formal methods for their definition
become necessary.
Most formal methods are based on first order languages. Software engineering
often uses algebraic methods, but tools practically used for data exchange standard
definitions are restricted to signatures and do not capture the behavior of the
operations. We present here an algebraic approach using a functional programming
language which includes specification of behavior and results in executable code.
The case used here to demonstrate the problem is the base for an ontology of
spatio-temporal databases. The world consists of objects, which have identity.
Identifiers, objects and world classes are defined as algebras with axioms. Executable
models for these are given. This environment is necessary to describe objects with
operation, when the essential part of the definition is the change an object can undergo.
It would be difficult to write this in a first-order language.
The focus is on the capabilities of the executable functional programming language
Haskell to formalize algebraic specifications; the issue is, how much of an algebraic
specification can be expressed formally in an executable language and how much must
be relegated to the implementation models (expressed in the same language). The
example shows that a very large part - and most of the important behavior - can be
captured in axioms for abstract classes.
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{frank97executable,

  author = {Frank, A and Medak, D},
  editor = {H. Kangassalo and P.J. Charrel},
  title = {Executable axiomatic specification using Functional language},
  booktitle = {Proceedings of 9th EJCIMKB'97 - European Japanese Conf on Information Modeling and Knowledge Bases},
  publisher = {IOS Press, Amsterdam (NL)},
  year = {1997},
  file = {docs/docsA/frank97executableAxiomaticSpecification.pdf},
  file2 = { docs/docsA/axioms.pdf}
}
Frank AU (1997), "Spatial Ontology: A Geographical Information Point of View", In Spatial and Temporal Reasoning. , pp. 135-153. Kluwer.
Abstract: Ontology is the science of objects. It is an ancient
discipline, which has recently been rediscovered, and
overhauled, for the purposes of Artificial
Intelligence. Ontology has been concerned with the
properties of objects, with their modes of existence
and with questions such as how they can be divided in
parts and how they fill space.This presentation takes
the position of a user of ontologies. It will seek to
show not only that there is a 'production of
ontologies' in the research literature, but also that
these ontologies are useful and can be used. The
paper will concentrate on the latter two issues,
focusing on a particular area of application, namely
that of Geographic Information Systems (GIS). It will
answer the question, how can ontologies be used and
how can they contribute to building better
information systems? This will mostly be done by
showing how the lack of a consistent ontology in a
system causes difficulties for its users.The paper
will conclude with a set of recommendations as to how
ontologies can be made more useful and how the
connection between the producers and consumers of an
ontology can be structured to make the exchange of
ideas more effective. I will also list a number of
broad general directions and specific topics which I
believe may yield useful contributions both from a
scientific and from an engineering point of view.
This paper is built on a simple metaphor: ontologies
are products and are sold in the international
supermarket of AI research. In this supermarket,
consumers look for ontologies which fulfill their
particular needs. They select ontologies to describe
the entities in their application domain and the
chosen ontologies must form a consistent ensemble.
Unfortunately, contradictions and other
inconsistencies may become apparent as one seeks to
implement the information system. In consequence,
producers of ontologies must put clear labels on the
products on the shelf, indicating the advantages and
disadvantages of each ontology and indicating also
potential conflicts with other ontologies: ``Truth in
labeling for ontologies!''
BibTeX:
@incollection{Bolzanopaper,

  author = {Frank, Andrew U.},
  editor = {Stock, Oliviero},
  title = {Spatial Ontology: A Geographical Information Point of View},
  booktitle = {Spatial and Temporal Reasoning},
  publisher = {Kluwer},
  year = {1997},
  pages = {135--153},
  note = {Included in the present edition as chapter 8},
  file = {docs/docsH/ontologyafgipv97.pdf}
}
Paiva JAdC, Egenhofer MJ and Frank AU (1992), "Spatial Reasoning about Flow Directions: Towards an Ontology for River Networks", In International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. XVII Congress. Vol. 24/B3 Comission III, pp. 318-324.
BibTeX:
@inproceedings{Paiva1992,

  author = {Paiva, João Argemiro de Carvalho and Egenhofer, Max J. and Frank, Andrew U.},
  editor = {Fritz, Lawrence and Lucas, James},
  title = {Spatial Reasoning about Flow Directions: Towards an Ontology for River Networks},
  booktitle = {International Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing. XVII Congress},
  year = {1992},
  volume = {24/B3 Comission III},
  pages = {318--324},
  file = {docs/docsH/jpmeafspatreaflow92.pdf}
}